Ancient Egypts Effect on Modern Society Essay Example for Free

Ancient Egypts Effect on Modern Society Essay The museum has always been a place for all different types of people from the public to go and appreciate art and feel reconnected with the past. People may go to the museum for these reasons or a variety of others. But for whatever reasons they choose to go to the museum it always has an influence on that person’s relationship between them and the history they viewed. Specifically speaking the museum has a big influence on the public and Ancient Egypt. The museum is already a place of history and mystery and Ancient Egypt is one of the most mysterious ancient cultures. With so little known about these ancient people it only makes sense that the museum would be a good place to strengthen that feeling of mystery. Ever since the modern discovery of Ancient Egypt the public have been fascinated by the mystery left behind by these ancient people. The modern public is always interested in learning about Egypt. Weather that be from books to movies or trips to the museum the general public uses a variety of methods to learn about the Ancient Egyptians culture. Stereotypically speaking when most people talk of Egypt they think of mummies. Most people one speaks to have generally the same depiction of what Egypt is in their heads. So a lot of times people don’t really know the truth about Ancient Egypt. And that is where the museum comes into play. The museum has always been found as a viable source of accurate information regarding history. So in today’s media rich society most people who are really curious about learning about Egypt would rather visit the museum rather than pick up a book on Egyptology and read it. The museum is a good place to start for people to go and observe visually what is left of Ancient Egypt. And these exhibits help to construct an idea of what this Ancient civilization was truly like compared to the entertainment industries depiction of it. This act of going to the museum to fulfill ones curiosity on the subject is just one way the museum helps strengthen the bond between the public and Ancient Egypt. Another way the museum helps strengthen the relationship between the public and Ancient Egypt is by giving them an escape from reality. Most people get fed up with the normal day in and day out of adult life and are always looking for something new exciting and mysterious. Ancient Egypt is something that is tantalizing for people to learn and talk about because so little is known and so much can be speculated. So the museum helps give this bored person a chance to view what is left of Ancient Egypt and to escape from their reality and escape to this mysterious world. This strengthens the relationship between Ancient Egypt and the public because people desire that mystery and they can get it by viewing the mystery of Ancient Egypt at the museum. One more way the museum strengthens this relationship is by adding more to the mystery. Meaning the museum shows the public a depiction of the past but no definitive answers, if anything I found you leave the Ancient Egyptian exhibit with more questions than answers. This quest for answers strengthens the relationship because the public is searching for an element of mystery and find it in Ancient Egypt, but every time they get more of a taste they get more unanswered questions. This causes more of a desire to learn and explore and it all begins with the museum giving just a taste of the mystery surrounding Ancient Egypt. Following this drive for knowledge on Ancient Egypt the museum also helps strengthen the physical relationship between the public and Ancient Egypt. Ancient antiquities are one of the most sought after items for just aesthetic position. People will go out of their way to bring back a piece of history with them that they can hold in their hands. Weather that be through artifact relics or souvenirs somebody is always trying to take a piece of history with them. They might be doing this for a variety of reasons. They may just want something interesting on a shelf to start a discussion where they can gloat about their recent trip to Egypt. Or they may want to have it because it makes them feel closer to the ancient times and the mystery of it all. But for whatever reason people always want to have some sort of item that relates them to the history or journey. The museum does this by providing them with a large varieties, the person who wants to fulfill that desire of owning a souvenir or relic, to choose from. You can buy almost anything Ancient Egypt related at the gift shop in a museum. From Lego pens to imitation artifacts, the museum is a great place to fill a need to buy a souvenir. Also what better time would it be to buy something Egyptian than right after viewing an exhibit of the real artifacts. So by being able to create a need for a physical relic and then fulfill it the museum is a perfect place to strengthen the bond between the public and Ancient Egypt. So the museum as it seams is a very powerful place when it comes to strengthening the bond between the public and Ancient Egypt. Weather the museum is providing just a simple craving of curiosity or to providing the perfect place to shop for a relic you can take home with you, it has been a great place to strengthen the bond between the public and Ancient Egypt. This place of mystery, knowledge and unanswered question will hopefully be around for a long time to fulfill the publics desire to know more and become closer with Ancient Egypt.

Oral Health Status of Pregnant and Non Pregnant Women

Oral Health Status of Pregnant and Non Pregnant Women â€Å"ORAL HEALTH STATUS AMONG PREGNANT AND NONPREGNANT WOMEN OF AGRA CITY A HOSPITAL BASED STUDY† ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION Pregnancy is often thought to be a time of happiness for the expectant mothers but it does not only influence her own oral health status but also may increase her risk of other diseases. OBJECTIVE To compare the oral health status among pregnant and nonpregnant women of Agra city. MATRIALS AND METHOD A cross sectional study was carried out among 425 pregnant and 425 nonpregnant women of 18-45 years attending the hospital. A pretested proforma designed in local language for collecting all the relevant information was used which included questions regarding personal information, oral hygiene practices, frequency of dental visits, education, occupation, gravid status along with a self-reported oral health status questions. The investigator was calibrated before the start of the study in order to limit the intra-examiner variability. RESULTS A total of 850 subjects with a mean age of 29.30 ±3.30 years were examined. The mean DMFT was found to be 3.02 ±1.79 and 1.79 ±1.90 in pregnant and nonpregnant respectively. CONCLUSION The results of this study showed that pregnancy had effect on the gingiva and on periodontal attachment levels. Overall oral health was poorer among pregnant women than nonpregnant women. KEY WORDS Gravid status, Oral Health Status, Oral hygiene. INTRODUCTION Pregnancy brings about physical, physiological and psychological changes in women. It affects almost all systems and parts of the body including the oral cavity. Due to changes in the hormones, many opportunistic organisms gain access to various parts of the body in the absence of proper care1. Pregnancy constitutes a special physiological state characterized by a series of temporary adaptive changes in body structure, as a result of an increased production of estrogen, progestron, gonadotropins and relaxin among other hormones. The oral cavity is also affected by such endocrine actions and may present both transient and irreversible changes as well as modifications that are considered pathological2. Pregnancy related oral changes are most marked and frequent in gingival tissue. Gingival inflammation and pregnancy have now been linked for many years; as early as 1978, Vermeeran discussed â€Å"toothpains† in Pregnancy. In 1818, Pitcarin described gingival hyperplasia in pregnancy3. Pinard first described this situation in 1877 characterized with erythema, hyperplasia and increased bleeding4. Women’s pregnancy experience not only influences her own oral health status but also may increase her risk of other diseases. High levels of oral diseases may also have an impact on the Oral Health Related Quality of Life. Although some studies on pregnant women have been reported, they have been limited to exploring the impact of certain factors, such as pain, on the Oral Health Related Quality of Life4. Pregnancy gingivitis marked by the gingival inflammation is the most common condition seen during the pregnancy due to hormonal changes particularly during the second trimester of gestation. The signs and symptoms of pregnancy gingivitis, however do not differ from the gingivitis seen in non pregnant women5. It has been noted that the gingivitis in pregnancy is related to the accumulation of dental plaque and maintenance of proper oral hygiene in pregnant women can play an important role in preventing this condition and maintaining a healthy gingival state6. There is a growing acceptance of the fact that oral disorders too can have a significant impact on physical, social and mental well-being during pregnancy. No study has been conducted on Oral Health Related Status of pregnant and non pregnant women in Agra city. Keeping the above facts in mind, an attempt was made to carry out a comparative hospital based study on Oral Health Status of pregnant and nonpregnant women attending selected hospitals in Agra city. MATERIALS AND METHOD A cross sectional study was carried out among 425 pregnant and 425 nonpregnant women of 18-45 years attending the hospital. A pilot study was conducted on 100 (n=50) pregnant and nonpregnant women each with OHRQoL as a main parameter. The prevalence of Oral Impact on Daily Performance was 76%. The estimated sample size for the study based on prevalence of Oral Impact on Daily Performance was calculated to be 827. Keeping in mind the non-response rate in each hospital, sample size of 850 subjects was taken. To obtain the total sample size of 850, 85 pregnant and 85 nonpregnant women from each of the five zone were randomly selected. INCLUSION CRITERA Subjects reporting in the hospitals Subjects willing to participate in the study. Subjects of 18-45 years age group. EXCLUSION CRITERIA Subjects suffering from any systemic disease Subjects in critical condition. Ethical clearance for the study was obtained by the Ethical Committee of K.D. Dental College and Hospital, Mathura. Also informed consent was taken from the women prior to the examination. A pretested Questionnaire and proforma designed in local language for collecting all the required and relevant information was used. The questionnaire included questions regarding name, age, socioeconomic status, oral hygiene practices, frequency of dental visits, education, occupation, gravid status along with a self-reported oral health status questions. Clinical examination included Oral Hygiene Index-Simplified (OHI-S), Gingival Index, Community Periodontal Index and DMFT/DMFS. Oral examination was done using mouth mirror, probe and natural light. Self-reported oral health status was assessed by asking eight questions that collected information about periodontal health and dental health. The eight questions were: Do you have bleeding gums?; burning gums?; swollen gums?; loose teeth?; decayed teeth?; tooth pain?; food lodgment between teeth?; sensitive teeth?. These questions were dichotomized into present and absent. The data obtained was compiled systematically from a pre-coded proforma in computer and a master table was prepared. The statistical analysis was done using SPSS version 16.0 Statistical Analysis Software. Results on continuous measurement were presented in Mean ±SD (Min-Max) and results on categorical measurements were presented in Number (%). Significance was assessed at 5% level of significance. RESULTS A total of 850 study subjects were selected out of which 61(7.17%) were of the age group 20-25 years with mean age observed 29.30 ±3.30. Among pregnant women, 204(48%) had poor OHI-S scores(Table.1), 198(46.58%) had moderate gingivitis(Table.2), 61(14.35%) had CPI score 4 (Table.3) and 37(8.71%) had LOA score 2 (Table.4). The mean number of decayed, missing and filled teeth were 3.42 ±2.66, 2.91 ±2.01 and 3.01 ±1.98 respectively among pregnant group. The mean scores for self reported oral health status, among pregnant group was 64.38 ±5.59 for decayed teeth and among nonpregnant group was 65.81 ±5.36 for burning gums (Table.5). TABLE.1 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO OHI-S SCORES AMONG PREGNANT AND NONPREGNANT GROUP TABLE.2 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO GINGIVAL INDEX SCORES AMONG PREGNANT AND NONPREGNANT GROUP TABLE. 3 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO CPI SCORES AMONG PREGNANT AND NONPREGNANT GROUP TABLE. 4 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO LOA SCORES AMONG PREGNANT AND NONPREGNANT GROUP TABLE 5: DISTRIBUTION OF STUDY SUBJECTS ACCORDING TO SELF- REPORTED ORAL HEALTH STATUS AMONG PREGNANT AND NONPREGNANT GROUP DISCUSSION In our study, out of the total study population of 850 pregnant and nonpregnant women, 359(42.23%) women were below the age of 30 years, which was in accordance to the studies conducted by Ingrida Vasiliauskiene et al7 and Gaffeid M et al8. On the contrary, in the study conducted by Nuamah and Annan9 20% of pregnant women and 21.4% of nonpregnant group belonged to the age group of 30-35 years. In the present study, among the total study population, 29.30 ±3.30 was the mean age. The results of our study were similar to the study conducted by Machuca et al10, in which the mean age was 30.1 ±1.90. On the contrary, studies conducted by Yalcin et al11 and Tilakarante et al12 showed the mean age pattern of 18.62 ±3.01 and 19 ±2.90 respectively. Among pregnant population 204(48%) had poor oral hygiene. On the contrary, in the study conducted by Santosh Kumar et al13 among total study population only 25% had poor oral hygiene. In our study, among the total study subjects, mean OHI-S score was 2.65 ±0.85. On the contrary, in the study conducted by Ingrida Vasiliauskiene et al7 mean OHI-S score among total study subjects was 1.79 ±1.13. The reason behind this is that during pregnancy, gums are more susceptible to the damaging effects of plaque, gingiva become more edematous and fragile due to which during brushing it bleeds quickly. The problem is compounded if women hav e morning sickness nausea and vomiting which make it hard to brush teeth regularly resulting in more plaque accumulation. Among pregnant group, about half of the total study subjects i.e 46.58% had moderate gingivitis. Results of our study were similar to the studies conducted by Yalcin et al11 and Tilakarante et al12. In our study, among the total study subjects, it was found that 98(11.52%) had healthy periodontium On the contrary, studies conducted by Santosh Kumar et al13 and Ingrida Vasiliauskiene et al7 found that approximately half of the total study population i.e 49.8% had healthy periodontium whereas, among pregnant group 36.6% and among nonpregnant group 61% had healthy periodontium. While the study conducted by Miyazaki et al14 stated that 82% of the pregnant study population had 4 or 5mm pocket which is much higher in comparison to our study. In our study, the mean scores among pregnant group and non pregnant group was 64.38 ±5.59 for decayed teeth and 65.81 ±5.36 for burning gums respectively. No earlier studies have been carried out that show distribution of study subjects according to self- reported oral health status among pregnant and non pregnant groups. In conclusion, results of the study showed that oral health status among pregnant and nonpregnant group of Agra city was not good. The study also drew attention towards the need for highlighting the importance of maintaining oral health during pregnancy. Regular dental care is a key component to good oral and general health. It can be stated that there is a need for the health care professionals to acknowledge the importance of good oral health in ensuring a safe and successful pregnancy and overcome misconceptions regarding rendering of essential dental care during this vital period in a woman’s life. REFERENCES Shashidhar Acharya and Parvati V. Bhat. Oral health related quality of life during pregnancy. American Association of Public Health Dentistry 2009;69:7477. Tracy M. Dellinger and H. Mark Livingston. Pregnancy:physiologic changes and considerations for dental patients. British Journal of Obstetric and Gynaecology 2006;5:677-697. Ojanotko-Harri AO, Harri M.P, Hurltia H.M and Sewon L.A. Altered tissue metabolism of progesterone in pregnancy gingivitis and granuloma. Journal of Clinical Periodontalogy 1991;18:262-266. Steinberg B.J. Woman’s oral health issues. Journal of Dental Education 1999;63:271-275. Miyagi M., Aoyama H., Moroshita M and Iwamoto Y. Effects of sex hormones on chemotaxis of human peripheral polymorphonuclear leukocytes and monocytes. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 1992;63:2832. Laine M.A. Effect of pregnancy on periodontal and dental health. Acta Odontologica Scandinavica Journal 2002;60:257-264. Ingrida Vasiliauskiene. Oral health status of pregnant women. Stomatologia, Baltic Dental and Maxillofacial Journal 2003;5:57-61. Gaffield M., Brenda J.,Gilbert C., Malvitz D.M. and Romaguera R. Oral Health during Pregnancy. Journal of American Dental Association 200;132:189-194. Nuamah I and Annan B.D. Periodontal status and oral hygiene practices of pregnant and non-pregnant women. East African Medical Journal 1998;75:712–714. Machuca G., Khoshfeiz O., Lacalle R.J., Machuca C. and Bullon P. The influence of general health and socio – cultural variables on the periodontal condition of pregnant women. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 1999;70:779–785. Yalcin F., Eskinazi E., Soydinc M., Basegmez C., Issever H. and Isik G. The effect of socio cultural effects on periodontal condition in pregnancy. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 2002;74:178-182. Tilakaratne A., Soory M., Ranasinghe AW., Corea SMX., Ekanayake S L. and Desilva M. Periodontal disease status during pregnancy and 3 months post partum, in a rural population of Sri-Lankan women. Journal of Clinical Periodontalogy 2000;27:787-792. Santosh Kumar Tadakamadla, Prachi Agarwal and Preksha Jain. Dental status and its socio-demographic influences among pregnant women attending a maternity hospital in India. Journal of Clinical Express in Dentistry 2007;3:183-192. Miyazaki H, Yamashita Y and Shirahama R. Periodontal conditions of pregnant women assessed by CPITN. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 1991:18:751-4. Manau C, Echeverria A, Agueda A, Guerrero A and Echeverria JJ. Periodontal disease definition may determine the association between periodontitis and pregnancy outcomes. Journal of Clinical Periodontology 2008; 35: 385-397. Navin Anand Ingle, Akila Ganesh, Preetha Elizabeth Chaley and V. Chandrasekhara Reddy. A survey on dental knowledge and gingival health of pregnant women attending government maternity hospital, Chennai. Journal of Oral Health and Community Dentistry 2011;5:24-30.

History of Anabolic Steroids Misuse and Drug Testing

History of Anabolic Steroids Misuse and Drug Testing Introduction: History of drug abuse Drug abuse in sport is not a recent issue. In Ancient Greece, the Olympic athletes used special diets (herbs,mushrooms and sesame seeds) to improve their physical performance. The gladiators in the Roman times, consumed stimulants to reduce fatigue.(1,2) South American Indians used coca leaves to enhance stamina.(2) During the nineteenth century, drug abuse became a great problem. Caffeine, strychnine, alcohol, cocaine, opium, and oxygen were used by swimmers, runners and cyclists to increase performance.(1,2) In 1896, the cyclist Arthur Linton was the first reported fatality case in sport from strychnine intake which was administered by his coach.(1) Later on, in 1904, the runner Thomas Hicks, was near to death in Olympic Marathon in St Louis USA, from use of strychnine and brandy.(1) During the Second World War, amphetamine consumption started by the troops to reduce their fatigue. In 1940s and 1950s, amphetamines substitute other drugs in its use in sport.( became the choice over other drugs). (1) Reported deaths from amphetamine abuse was in 1964, the Danish cyclist knut Jensen at Rome Olympics died on the opening day of the games. In 1967, the British cyclist Tommy Simpson, at Tour de France, died from amphetamine abuse. After Simpson’s death, the International Olympic Committee took an action and the first list of banned substances was published in 1968.(1,3) In 1950s, a new class was misused by athletes and weightlifters to increase muscle size and strength and this class named anabolic steroids;(1) in 1964, there was suspect for use of anabolic steroid in Summer Olympics in Tokyo due to the increase in muscle mass of the athletes.(3) Top scandals in drug abuse 1. East German athletes(4,5,6) From 1972 to 1988, the East German which was a country of 17 million populations, won 20 to 40 gold medals in 4 years and became a country competing the United States and Soviet Union. Manfred Ewald who was the head of Olympic sport committee in East Germany, and Dr. Manfred Hoeppner who was the sports doctor at that time, were responsible about giving the athletes banned substances intentionally without their knowledge. This results in severe complications in the athlete’s health such as liver dysfunction, cancer, hormonal changes and infertility. From 1966 and on, many doctors and coaches in East German follow a plan which was sponsored by the government known as â€Å"systematic and overall doping in competitive sports†. After the collapse of East German and Berlin Wall fall in 1989, many athletes confessed about the pills and injections that were given to them. Kornelia Ender, Barbara Krause and Carola Nitschke were three of the thousands of East German athletes who had provided with steroids. Heidi Kreiger was also one of the athletes that was provided with steroids heavily and this was the main reason that force her to make sex-alteration operation. 2. Pan American Games in 1983 IOC included testosterone in the banned list in 1983 and it was the first endogenous substance to be tested at that time. The test was based on measuring the testosterone to epitestosterone (T/E) ratio. (1) The first drug testing for steroids was at the Pan America Games in Caracas and Venezuela in 1983. Around 15 athletes were caught at these games. Jeff Michaels, the American weightlifter, and Guy Greavette, the Canadian weightlifter, were tested positive for steroids. They returned their medals and being suspended for 2 years. (5,7) Many athletes of the U.S track-and-field team withdrew from the game rather than being captured. (7) 3. Ben Johnson’s scandal In 1988, the Canadian Ben Johnson was stripped of his gold medal at 100 meters after he has been tested positive for the anabolic steroid stanozolol at Seoul Olympics. Johnson has been banned from competition for 2 years.(7) 4. Michelle Smith: the Irish swimmer(5,7) In 1998, the Olympic champion swimmer Michelle Smith was tested positive for banned substance at her home through out-of-competition testing. The test was positive for alcohol in an amount that would be fatal if taken by an athlete. So FINA, the international governing body for swimming, concluded that the urine sample was treated with alcohol as a masking agent and Smith has been suspended for four years. 5. Chinese swim team(5,7) The Chinese national swim team has been used anabolic steroids, erythropoietin and human growth hormone in the last 15 years. In 1992 Barcelona Olympics and 1994 world championships, china won a high number of gold medals. In world swimming championships, a world records was set by women swimmers, and this causes suspect that they were using drugs. In 1994 at Asian Games, eleven athletes were caught as drug abusers for dihydrotestosterone. Since 1990,over 40 Chinese swimmers were tested positive for abused drugs and at that time china reached the peak for drug abuse over the swimming countries. 6. Tour de France(5) Doping by cyclists arises since 1967 after Simpson death at Tour de France due to amphetamine misuse. Drug abuse by cyclists continues and in summer 1998, the Festina cycling team was pushed out from the competition at Tour de France after the French Officials found EPO in their masseur’s car. After investigations, six of Festina’s nine riders confessed that they had taken abused drugs. Later on, the leader also has failed drug tests for anabolic steroids. Also in 2002, Stefano Garzelli, the leader of the Vini Caldirola team, has failed drug test for probenecid, a diuretic which is used as a masking agent. Also in the same year at Tour de France, the Spanish cyclist Igor Gonzalez de Galdeano, was tested positive for anti-asthmatic drug. In January 2004, two cyclists in the Cofidis team, which is one of the top teams in france, were caught as drug abusers for EPO and amphetamines. 7. Steroids in baseball (5) In 2002, a report was published by the Sports Illustrated and the National League MVP Ken Caminiti stated that â€Å"at least half the guys are using steroids.† In 2003, the Major League Baseball revealed that around 7% of 1438 tests on all players were positive for steroids. 8. Doping in skiing(5) Drug abuse in cross-country skiing has been spread for years especially with EPO. In 2001 world championships in Finland, six finish skiers have failed drug test for HES which is a plasma volume expander. Three skiers at the Salt Lake Games were tested positive for the drug Darbepoetin which is a synthetic compound of the natural hormone EPO. Two of these athletes Olga Danilova and Larissa Lazutina were Russian medalists but later on, they were stripped of their medals and the gold medal was awarded to the Canadian Beckie Scott who ended third. 9. BALCO scandal BALCO is Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative which is a company that provides nutritional supplements. Victor Conte built BALCO in 1984 and he followed a system for analyzing urine and blood in order to prescribe supplements that replace vitamin and mineral deficiencies. Tetrahydrogestrinone is one of banned substances that was used by BALCO and was undetected by drug testing. THG or â€Å"The Clear† is an anabolic steroid that can reduce fatigue during training and can increase the muscle mass. In 2003, the USADA, United States Anti-Doping Agency, developed a test for THG after receiving a syringe from anonymous (US track coach Trever Graham) containing THG and claiming that most athletes are using this drug. Don Catlin, succeeded in developing the test and he tested the urine samples that were taken from athletes at the US championships and numerous tests came back positive for THG(8,9). Athletes that were involved in BALCO scandal were Kelli White, Marion Jones, C.J.Hunter, Tim Montgomery, baseball star Barry bonds, and NFL’s Bill Romanowski, and Dwain Chambers. In 2004, Dwain Chambers who was the European 100m championship at that time was banned from competition for 2 years. 100m and 200m Champion kelli white was banned for 2 years as well. USADA convicted BALCO, for the distribution of THG. In 2005, Victor Conte was jailed for four months. Greg Anderson (Barry Bond’s trainer) was jailed for three months.(9,10,11,12) 10. Ma’s runners Ma Junren was the coach for the world female championships runners(13). In 1993, Ma’s Chinese female runners won three gold medals at the World Track and Field championships in Stuttgart and also in 1997 they set world records. From that time there was suspicion that the runners were using banned substances(13,15). A doping scandal for Ma’s runners arose before the 2000 summer Sydney Olympic(14,15). Top runners like Liquing Song and Lili Yin had failed drug test for testosterone during an out-of competition testing in 2000 and the Ma’s Chinese runners were evicted from the Olympic team(13,15). History of drug testing: Doping was also done for race horses not and only for humans. The first drug test was done for alkaloids on the saliva of horses in 1910 by a Russian Chemist in Vienna.(1,2) Drug testing on human urine started in 1950s after the wide spread abuse of amphetamines. (7) After British Tommy Simpson death from amphetamine abuse at Tour de France in 1967, IOC established the Medical Commission and a list of banned substances was established by the IOC. Professor Beckett was a member in the Medical Commission at that time and he developed methods for detection of stimulants ,i.e. drugs that were used† in competition†. (3,7) Methods of Beckett for drug testing were first used in 1968 at Mexico City Olympic competition and these tests were for non-steroidal drugs (narcotic analgesics and stimulants) and there was no tests for anabolic steroids.(7)(3). The first formal drug testing programmes for narcotics and stimulants was in 1972 at Munich Olympics. These tests were done at the competition periods. The abuse of Anabolic steroids became prevalent in 1970s and its use was banned in 1974 by the IOC and added to the list in 1975(1) p313. The first formal steroid testing program occurred in 1976 at Montreal Olympics using radioimmunoassay screening for detection its presence and GCMS for confirmation. (7,19) In and out of competition testing: At first testing programmes were based on tests during the competition periods. But later on it was recognized that these tests were of limited value to catch up the cheats. Athletes learn how to defeat the testing programmes by calculating the clearance time of the drug in the body so they could avoid its use before the competition periods. Form here came the â€Å"out -of -competition† testing programmes to catch the cheats for drug abuse. â€Å"Out of competition testing† started in late 1970s. The first out of competition testing was conducted in 1977 by Norway and in UK, it started in early 1980s. However, the â€Å"out- of -competition† testing did not expand globally until the establishment of WADA in 2000. WADA established out-of-competition testing programmes and it was followed globally from that time.(1) p314-315 Classification of Abused Drugs Doping classes and methods examples Anabolic steroids Testosterone, nandrolone (discussed later Blood Doping blood transfusion(discussed later) Stimulants Amphetamine, ephedrine, cocaine, caffeine Narcotics Morphine, Methadone, Codeine Peptide and glycoprotein hormones Human growth hormone, corticotrophin, human chorionic gonadotrophin, erythro poietin Diuretics and masking agents Acetazolamide, Furesamide, Probencid Beta- blockers Atenolol, Propanolol, Metoprolol Atenolol, Propanolol, Metoprolol Anabolic steroids (discussed later) Blood Dopping (Blood Transfusions) ( discussed later) Central Nervous System Stimulants Athletes often use stimulants to enhance alertness and reduce fatigue i.e. increase physical and mental performance.1p41. These are more used on the day of competition to reduce the sensitivity to pain of athletes if they got injured; however, nowadays they are used during training to increase training time. Amphetamines Amphetamine is a synthetic compound (1920), it was developed as an appetite suppressant and for treatment of narcolepsy, to fight fatigue and to enhance alertness, but later it was withdrawn from clinical use due to the development of tolerance. P42 Methamphetamine is very addictive stimulant, related to amphetamine with more longer lasting and toxic effects on the CNS. Mechanism of action: These are indirectly acting sympathomimetic amine. They enter neurons and act presynaptically to release stores of noradrenaline, and dopamine from nerve endings; they also block noradrenaline and dopamine transporter reuptake and inhibit MAO. They include Dexamphetamine, Methamphetamine, Phenmetrazine, and methylphenidate. Routes of administration: Amphetamine can be administered orally, nasally, and intravenously. Amphetamine itself is not very effective if smoked. Methamphetamine is smokable form and it is becoming increasingly popular as a drug of abuse. Effects of Amphetamines in Sport: Athletes often use amphetamine to reduce fatigue, increase alertness and concentration, increase euphoria and to tolerate painful injuries.p42. p72 Side Effects: The most important side effect is heart stroke.p72. Amphetamines cause peripheral vasoconstriction and thus increase blood pressure. The body overheats and cannot regain its temperature resulting in dehydration.1.p42 The second side effect is that the euphoric action may affect the awareness of athletes and thus they fall in misjudgements. Cases of amphetamine abuse: Amphetamine use was spread around the time of the Second World War, to decrease fatigue of the troops. Later, its use was spread among athletes in 1940s and 1950s. 1.p30. its use atarted to be controlled under the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. In 1960, the cyclist, Knud Jenson, died due to amphetamine abuse in the intense summer heat of Rome Olympics.1p72-30 In 1967 Tour de France, the British cyclist, Tommy Simpson, died as a result of amphetamine abuse while climbing the infamous Mont Ventoux. His death was due to cardiac arrest.1p72 In 1997,American Footballers, (Clarkson and Thompson), withdrew from play due to amphetamine abuse which was taken to tolerate injuries.1p72 Effect on behaviour Mandell (1979), Golding(1981) In 2002, the British skier Alain Baxter, had lost his Olympic bronze medal and he was banned from skiing from March until June, due to positive test of Methamphetamine( l-form which is found in OTC vicks inhaler. IOC test do not distinguish between l- and d- form. D-form is used as performance –enhancing drug. Later on, Baxter’s name was cleared as being a drug cheater and it was approved that the drug was l- form.(16,17,18) Ecstasy It is a synthetic amphetamine derivative. It was synthesized in 1914 as an appetite suppressant. It has stimulant amphetamine like properties, now commonly used in dance clubs but it may be misused by athletes. In UK, it was classified as an illegal substance since 1977, and in USA its use was under control since 1985. Since 1990, there were no reports for ecstasy misuse by athletes.p73 Ephedrine and related compounds Ephedrine is a natural product occurring in the plant genus Ephedra. Phyenylpropanolamine and pseudoephedrine are synthetics. These are used to treat cold symptoms as bronchodilators.1.p73.p42. Mechanism of action It has sympathomimetic action. These deplete noradrenalin from neuronal storage sites resulting in indirect effect on sympathetic neurons and CNS.1.p73 Routes of administration Ephedrine and phenylpropanolamine are found in cold medications (in UK and USA) which are taken orally. Phenylpropanolamine is now prohibited by US authorities. 1.p74 Effect of Ephedrine in Sport Ephedrine is misused by athletes for its euphoric action.1p42. Athletes try to misuse ephedrine because its use could be negotiated due to its presence in the over-the-counter medication.1p42 Side effects The main side effect is the cardiac arrthythmias. Cases of Ephedrine abuse Pseudoephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, and phenylephrine were removed from WADA list for banned substances in 2004, but they are still controlled by WADA for athlete’s misuse. Ephedrine is still on the banned list.1p76 In 1972 Olympics, the US swimmer, De Mont, was banned due to urinary ephedrine positive test in which he declared that its presence due to a medicine.1p76 In 1988, Linford Christie, at Seoul, was tested positive for cold cure substance, and he was nearly to lose his silver medal. Cocaine Cocaine was a component of Coca-Cola until it was classified as an illegal drug and it was removed in 1903.(1)The main therapeutic effect is its use as a local anaesthetic. Mechanism of action Cocaine exerts its sympathomimetic central effects by inhibiting the reuptake of noradrenaline, dopamine, and 5-HT into presynaptic terminals of the mesolimbic reward/pleasure pathway. Routes of administration â€Å"Snorting† is the most common route of administration of cocaine. The powder is drawn up to the noise, and is absorbed through the nasal epithelium into the blood. It reaches the brain within about three minutes. It can also administered by intravenous injection, reaching the brain in 15 seconds and the effects last for 15 minutes. Crack cocaine is smoked in a pipe, absorbed rapidly in the lungs and reaching the brain in about 5 seconds. Effects of cocaine is sport It was misused in sport due to its euphoric effect and due to reduction of fatigue. Side effects Its side effects are: tachycardia, hypertension and at high dosage, tremors and seizures may occur. Cardiotoxic metabolite may result due to concomitant use of cocaine with alcohol and anabolic steroids. Reported cases of cocaine misuse Len Bias, the US basketball player, and Don Rogers, the American footballer died from cocaine abuse.(1) Caffeine Caffeine is the most popular used drug which is found in many beverages like coffee, tea and soft drinks. Caffeine was banned by IOC but then it was withdrawn from the list by WADA in January 2004. However, its use is still monitored by WADA. Quantitative measurement for caffeine in the urine was established in 1984 at the Olympic Games in Sarajevo and Los Angeles. IOC set the level in the urine at 15 micrograms per millilitre and then in 1988, it was decreased to 12micrograms per millilitre. Studies showed that 1000mg doses of caffeine are required to excrete caffeine in the urine at levels more than 12 micrograms per millilitre. Routes of administration It is taken as tablets or injections(1) Effects of caffeine in sport High doses are required in sport to decrease fatigue and increase concentration.(1) Side effects tremors Narcotic analgesics These are called opiates. Raw opium contains morphine and codeine which have strong analgesic properties. Drugs that are usually misused are: Morphine, heroin, and methadone. All opiates were banned by IOC except dextromethorphan, pholcodeine, and diphenoxylate. Codeine was first banned but because many sports federation had refused that so it was then removed from the list due to its presence in many over-the-counter medications. Mechanism of action: Opiates bind to specific opiate receptors in the brain and spinal cord, and also interact with endogenous opiate peptides, enkephalins and endorphins, in mediating emotional highs and in the process of addiction.p(1)-23 Routes of administration Opiates are taken orally, by injection or by inhalation. Effects of narcotic analgesics in sport These are used for their euphoric and analgesic actions. They are used to mimic the injury during training or competition. Side effects These include vomiting, diarrhea, dry mouth, skin itching, loss of concentration, drowsiness, comas, and addiction. At high doses it may cause respiratory depression.(1) p24,,BBC Diuretics and other masking agents Diuretics are drugs that are used by people to remove fluid in order to decrease blood pressure. Examples are: furesamide, acetazolamide and chlorthalidone. Effects of diuretics in sport Diuretics are misused in sport to overcome the side effect fluid retention that is cause by athletes misusing anabolic steroids. They are also used to lower the athlete’s weight in sports that competition occurs in weight groups. P46red and BBC. Also diuretics are used to increase the flow of urine and hence increase the rate of excretion of abused drug or its metabolite in the urine so the abused drug could not be detected. Side effects These include: muscle cramps, dehydration, headache, nausea and kidney damage. Probenecid is used as making agent to disguise the presence of banned drugs and their metabolites by inhibiting the excretion of these through the kidney.p47 red. Probenecid is no more used because the use of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry can detect its presence and catch up the cheats. Beta blockers These were added to the list of doping classes in 1985. But because of its therapeutic use, the IOC in 1993 added them in the â€Å"classes of drugs subject to certain restrictions â€Å"part . They were used by athletes to increase their performance by increasing the cardiac output increasing blood flow to muscles.p-48-49 red Peptide and glycoprotein hormones These are natural substance that are produced by the body.BBC –doping I sport Effects in sport Corticotrophin: it induces the release of the adrenal corticosteroids thus mimic the pain after injury. (1)p47 Human Growth hormone(HGH) and chorionic gonadotrophin( HCG) : it has anabolic effect, so it increases size and strength of muscles. BBc Erythropoietin: it is a peptide hormonep48(1). It increases red blood cell production thus increasing the oxygen transfer by blood ,ie. Increase in the performance .BBC. Side effects HGH has main side effect that is, it may cause acromegaly.BBC EPO has main side effect that is, it may thicken the blood, resulting in heart attacks.BBC Chemical and physical manipulation It is the changing of urine sample by using substances or procedures in order to conceal the detection of a banned substance. Examples of manipulation are: the use of other’s urine, use of vinegar to affect the urine, epitestosterone to alter the ratio. BBC news,doping Anabolic Steroids What are Anabolic steroids? Testosterone was isolated in 1935.(2)p52. It is an endogenous steroidal hormone male hormone produced by testes in men. steroid 7. It is synthesized from cholesterol like all other steroidal hormones. Steroid 7. Epitestosterone is a testosterone isomer and found in a small ratio with respect to testosterone. Steroid7. Testosterone is responsible for the androgenic and anabolic effects.steroid7. The androgenic functions of testosterone are responsible for the modifications in the primary sexual male features. Steroid7. , while the anabolic effects are responsible for enhancing muscle growth, protein synthesis and erythrocytes. steroid 7. Anabolic steroids are group of synthetic modified derivatives of testosterone. steoid 10. When administered, they bind to the androgen receptors which are found in the prostate, skeletal muscle and central nervous system to give their mechanism of action. Their structure is developed and modified to improve the anabolic effects with decreased androgenic effects. steroid 10 Routes of administration Anabolic steroids are administered orally or intramuscularly. Nowadays, athletes are using transdermal patches, sublingual tablets, nasal sprays, and dermatological gels of testosterone to escape positive tests(2). P 3 Why do athletes misuse anabolic steroids Athletes use anabolic steroids due to their anabolic effects, so they are used due to its positive effect on the skeletal muscle tissues. They are used to increase strength and muscle size. They are also used to increase body weight, protein metabolism and collagen synthesis. Steoird 6 and 35 . Some athletes use anabolic steroids because they â€Å"want to be big†. steroid 7. Side effects Cardiovascular effects: Anabolic steroids ingestion results in severe coronary heart disease. They reduce high density lipoprotein (HDL) and increase low density lipoprotein (LDL). Steroid 25- steroid 7. resulting in atherosclerosis. Increase heart stroke Anabolic steroids increase blood clotting and thus favouring thrombosis resulting in heart attacks. steroid 26 Liver problems Oral anabolic steroids results in cholestatic hepatitis and jaundice. steorid 7,26 Also increase in the liver enzymes( aspartate amino transferase, alanine amino transferase and lactate dehydrogenase) is encountered with the use of steroids. steroid 37 Sexual side effects High doses of anabolics in a study by Holma, shows that the sperm counts decreased by 73% and azoospermia occurred for 3 individuals i.e affecting fertility. Steroid 7 They affect secretion of the reproductive hormones like testosterone and thus reducing libido due to decrease level of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone(FSH).sterodi 37. Anabolic steroids abuse may result in prostate cancer. Steroid 37 Gynaecomastia It is the enlargement of the mammary tissues in men due to transfer of androgens to estradiol and estrone. steroid 7,37 Psychological effects A study in USA showed that anabolic steroids revealed changes in mood such as mania and depression. steorid7 Other side effects include: hyperinsulinemia, hypertension, tendon damage, steroid 26. edema, muscle spasm, acne hirsutism, and deepening of voice. Steroid 35 History of anabolic steroids misuse and drug testing The use of banned substances such as caffeine, cocaine and strychnine started during the 19th century in most of the sport events like cycling, swimming, and distance running. steroid 26. The abuse of steroids in sport started in 1950s by the soviet weightlifting teams.p54 green,steroid26. In 1960 Olympic Games, anabolic steroids use was restricted to Soviet weightlifting, but by 1964, their use is increased in all strength sports. p45 green. 7. Anabolics use became more common in most sports in 1972 Olympic Games. Steroid 26 Anabolic steroids use has been banned by medical commission of IOC in 1974 and has been added to the list of banned substances of IOC in 1975.steroid 10, 7 Although the first formal testing was introduced in 1972 Munich Olympics, there was no testing for anabolic steroids (7). P4. The first formal test for anabolic steroid was in 1976 Montreal Summer Olympics(7). First positive tests for steroids were in 1976 Montreal Olympics, in which 8 athletes, seven weightlifters and one female athlete in a field event were caught for steroid abuse(7).p75., while no positive tests were reported in 1980 Moscow Olympic Games. Anabolic androgenic steroids are one of the most widely used drugs by athletes to enhance their performance and physical appearance. Steroid 6. Their use extends to be not among professional athletes but also among high school male and female students. Steroid 26 WADA accredited laboratories published statistics form 1993 till 2003 and this showed that anabolic steroids are the most widely used banned substances.p32.red. 1993 1994 2001 2002 2003 stimulants 22.8% 24% 15.4% 14.9% 19% Anabolic steroids 59.9% 50.5% 40.1% 36.8% 32.1% Unlike amphetamines and other stimulants which were taken on the day of competition ( which causes sudden death due to cardiac arrest), anabolic steroids are administered during the training exercise and not before the competition periods. P31 red. they are taken in cycles with duration of six- twelve weeks, and usually 2-3 cycles are taken in a year. Steroid7. The introduction of the â€Å"out of competition† testing programmes limited the use of the anabolic steroids. P46 red Systematic doping: biggest scandal One of the biggest scandals for steroid abuse was in the German Democratic Republic, they were used from 1965 to 1989 and this allows the East German to win many medals. Coaches and doctors in East Germany follow a programme for systematic doping with steroids. In 1965, a pharmaceutical company had developed chlor-substituted derivative of methandrostenolone (Oral-Turbinabol R), and from 1968 GRD started to introduce it to female athletes in the Olympic Games. Steroid 40 Detection of anabolic steroids: Detection of urinary anabolic steroid by radioimmunoassay Drug testing was based on radioimmunoassay screening of urine samples from athletes for detection of banned substances and then gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for confirmation the positive tests (7). Testing at that time was insensitive and not selective due to the fact that testing was done during competition periods and anabolic steroids were usually taken for long periods, so athletes used to quit these drugs at competition periods so their level will decrease in the urine and could not be detected and the tests would give false negative (19). Detection of urinary anabolic steroids by GC/MS, measuring testosterone to epitestosterone (T/E ratio) Drug testing at that time could not differentiate between endogenous testosterone and synthetic anabolics.steroid7. Testosterone was introduced in the banned list of IOC in 1983, it was the first endogenous substance to be banned, after the discovery of the detection method in 1982. p35red. In 1984 Olympic Games, all urine samples from athletes were screened by GC/MS for detection and identification. The T/E ra

Acid Rain :: Free Essay Writer

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Acid Rain   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Acid rain is a serious problem with disastrous effects. Each day this serious problem increases, many people believe that this issue is too small to deal with right now this issue should be met head on and solved before it is too late. In the following paragraphs I will be discussing the impact it has on the wildlife and how our atmosphere is being destroyed by acid rain. There is evidence that the rain is destroying the productivity of the once rich soils, like an overdose of chemical fertilizer. The damage of such overdosing may not be repairable or reversible. On some croplands, tomatoes grow to only half their full weight, and the leaves of radishes wither. Naturally it rains on cities too, eating away stone monuments and concrete structures, and corroding the pipes that channel the water away to the lakes and the cycle is repeated. Paints and automobile paints have its life reduce due to the pollution in the atmosphere speeding up the corrosion process. In some communities the drinking water is mixed with toxic metals freed from metal pipes by the acidity. As if urban skies were not already gray enough, typical visibility has declined from 10 to 4 miles, along the Eastern seaboard, as acid rain turns into smog. Also, now there are indicators that the components of acid rain are a health risk, linked to human respiratory disease. Not only is acid rain killing our plants and animals, it is killing our budget, in addition to contributing to acid rain, nitrogen oxides can react with hydrocarbons to produce ozone, a major air pollutant responsible in the United States for annual losses of $2 billion to 4.5 billion worth of wheat, corn, soybeans, and peanuts. A wide range of interactions can occur many unknown with toxic metals.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the beginning of the 20th century most rivers/lakes like the river Tovdal in Norway had not yet begun to die. However by 1926 local inspectors were noticing that many of the lakes were beginning to show signs of death. Fish were found dead along the banks of many rivers. As the winters ice began to melt off more and more hundreds upon hundreds more dead fish (trout in particular) were being found. It was at this time that scientist began to search for the reason. As the scientists continued to work they found many piles of dead fish, up to 5000 in one pile, further up the river.

Favoritism in Washington Irvings The Legend of Sleepy Hollow :: Legend Sleepy Hollow

Favoritism in The Legend of Sleepy Hollow In Washington Irving's short story "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" he has two main characters, Ichabod Crane and Bram Bones. These two heroic characters both desire the same woman, Katrina Van Tassel, the daughter of a substantial Dutch farmer. Apart from the fact that they both yearn for the same woman these two men are completely different creatures. In "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow", Washington Irving does not hide the fact that he clearly favors Ichabod Crane over Brom Bones. Ichabod Crane is a somewhat geeky tall lanky man. He is a highly educated schoolmaster who travels from home to home teaching young children. "Ichabod Crane had a soft and foolish heart towards the sex". He clearly doubts himself with the ladies and appears to be a rather insecure character throughout the narrative. On the other hand, Ichabod Crane's adversary Bram Bones is quite the opposite. Bram Bones is a rather large robust burly and somewhat arrogant man. He is well known for his "feats of strength and hardihood. He is a confident man who expects his advances on a lady to be reciprocated. Bram Bones traveled with his gang of friends whereas Ichabod Crane seemed to be a loner who traveled by himself. Interestingly, both men were well known for there knowledge and skill in their own trades. Nevertheless, even their choice of vocation couldn't be more contrary. Bram Bones was known for his great knowledge and skill in horsemanship. His profession was a hands on job requiring great physical strength. Later in the story we learn that Ichabod lacks the necessary skills to ride a horse very well. Conversely, Ichabod Crane was clearly known for his knowledge and great wisdom. He was respected for his informative accounts of witch craft and the legendary superstitions such as the headless horseman. In terms of the author's favorite character, Washington is not shy about letting the reader know favoritism is undoubtedly towards Ichabod Crane. At one point in the story Washington states, "I should in the true spirit of romantic story, give some account of the looks and equipments of my hero and his steed".

Case 3- marketing Essay

1. how was Samsung able to go from copycat Brand to product leader? By introducing a new top-to-bottom strategy for the entire company which Lee called â€Å"new management†. In order to become a cutting-edge product leader and not a copycat and cheap brand, Samsung hired new fresh young designers whom will develop sleek, bold, beautiful and that will always receive a Wow! For response new products. Also, the company was no longer going to work with low-end distributers, instead they choose to work with specialty retailers such as Best Buy and Circuit City. Lee ´s goal was to dethrone Sony and become the biggest consumer electronics firm in the world. 2. is Samsung ´s product development process customer centered? Team based? Systematic? I do believe that Samsung ´s product development process has all those qualities since every new product has to pass the Wow! Test during testing in order to be very attractive for customers, otherwise it is sent back to the design department. Throughout this test the company can also evaluate and review the new products. Also the â€Å"new management† is a top-to-bottom strategy so it is supposed to be centered, team based and systematic; it requires several departments to work together. 3. Based on the PLC, what challenges does Samsung face in managing its high-tech products? Samsung ´s products have been extremely successful during the last years but now their high-tech products have lost their touch and the company ´s profits and sales are declining. Lee ´s reponse to this matter was Samsung ´s new strategy â€Å"mabuljungje† which means â€Å"horse that does not stop†; even tought their products are in the decline stage Lee does not plan to stop, he  believes this is the time for the company to run and keep going. 4. will Samsung likely achieve its goals in markets where it does not dominate, such as smartphones? Why or why not? I dont belive it will conquer the markets where it does not dominate right now simply because even tought they are investing heavily to ensure and have the TV advantage loyalty lies in the products of other companies such as Mac Store. Right now little percentage of the customers prefer Samsung instead of Mac why? Because their products are more recognized in society terms, have more class, usually are the first ones to appear so they are inmediatly the leaders , the service is good and more.

The Clash of Civilizations: a Summary of Samuel Huntington’s Controversial

POLI 100 – F10N01 Gabrielle Bishop The Clash of Civilizations: A Summary of Samuel Huntington’s controversial Political Analysis and its Critics â€Å"Culture and cultural identities, which at the broadest level are civilizational identities, are shaping patterns of cohesion, disintegration, and conflict in the post-Cold War World† – Samuel Huntington POLI 100 – F10N01! Gabrielle Bishop In a 1993 article published in Foreign Affairs, Harvard Professor of Government and Political Scientist Samuel Huntington made a prediction for the 21st century that would go on to be both disputed and supported by experts around the globe.As the Iron Curtain of ideology of the Cold War had fallen, Huntington theorized that a new â€Å"Velvet Curtain† of culture would rise1. While the Cold War divided the world up into â€Å"communist and democratic† societies, the 21st century would feature con? icts between â€Å"clashing civilizations†, whose disputes would be rooted in various ethnic, cultural, and/or religious differences 2. In 1996, Huntington wrote a book titled: â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order†, which expanded upon these points. Some were intrigued, others, extremely offended.But, few could ignore the controversial predictions Huntington made about the future of global politics. Huntington divides â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations† into ? ve parts, the ? rst of which is titled as: â€Å"Part One: A World of Civilizations†. In this chapter, he identi? es the six principal civilizations that make up the world, as well as two other â€Å"possible† civilizations3: 1. Sinic4: Includes China and the Chinese communities in South-East Asia. Vietnam and Korea are also in this group. 2. Japanese: Huntington stresses that Japanese civilization is very distinct, and does not necessarily ? in with other â€Å"Far Eastern† nations; having split off from China betw een 100 and 400 AD. 3. Hindu (Also referred to as â€Å"Indian† or â€Å"Indic†): Huntington notes that while there are Muslim communities within India, Hinduism has been essential to the culture of the subcontinent since for almost 4,000 years. 4. Islamic: This civilization emerged around 700AD in the Arabian peninsula, and quickly spread across North Africa, the Iberian peninsula, central Asia, the Subcontinent, and Southeast Asia. Many unique Islamic â€Å"sub-cultures† exist because of this (ex: Malay, Turkic, Persian, etc. 5 5. Western (formerly known as â€Å"Western Christendom†): This civilization is widely viewed as having emerged at around 700AD, Huntington states, and comprises many states in Europe, and North & Latin America, as well as many European settler countries (such as Australia and New Zealand) 6. Latin American: While this civilization has its roots in European civilization, Huntington states that its corporatist & authoritarian cult ure is what truly sets it apart from Europe and North America. 7. Orthodox (possibly): Huntington mentions brie? that some other academics consider the Orthodox Russian civilization to be separate from Byzantine and Western Christian civilization. 8. African (possibly): Huntington also mentions that most scholars do not consider there to be an African civilization, with the exception of French Historian Fernand Braudel6 . He notes that North Africa is part of the Islamic civilization, and that Ethiopia has been known to constitute a civilization of its own7 . He theorizes that because of their rapid growth of identity, Sub-Saharan Africa could indeed become its own civilization, with a chance of South Africa being its â€Å"core state†8.In choosing to identify civilizations in this way, Huntington received a number of rebuttals; such as the one from Fethi Keles (who teaches in the Anthropology department at Syracuse University)9. In â€Å"The The Antinomies of Samuel P. Hunt ington: Some Anthropological Reflections on the American Pundit†, Keles criticizes Huntington for being â€Å"Eurocentric†, and too general; for not recognizing that cultures are not so simple that they can be categorized into six (or, eight) different civilizations 10.Keles also notes that Huntington never once cited a foreign-language reference (a detail first noticed by anthropologist Hugh Gusterson)11. Feles instead proposes that he â€Å"[pay] more attention to detail, of the sort provided by anthropology† 12. Only then, she states, will his predictions improve from a â€Å"constantly risk-running sort to a relatively risk-averse one†13. Huntington begins the next section, â€Å"Part 2: The Shifting Balance of Civilizations†, by stating that the power and influence the West once held is now dying14.Although the civilization did experience success with the collapse of the Soviet Union, Huntington argues that the West has become â€Å"exhaustedà ¢â‚¬ 15. He brings to light two opposing arguments: (A): That the West still holds a monopoly over economic consumption, military strength, and technology;16 and, (B): That the West is losing its influence and power. 17 Huntington takes the side of Argument B, and expands on it further. He notes that while the West’s power and influence may indeed be declining, it will be a very slow process and is therefore not an immediate threat presently to global forces 18.Huntington stresses the growing role religion is now playing in global politics. He notes that religion often gains popularity in response to a society’s changing needs. He mentions, for example, how many South Koreans have abandoned their traditional Buddhist beliefs in exchange for Christianity as their nation has become increasingly urban and economicallybased. Kang Jun In criticizes Huntington in his article: â€Å"Confucianism and Democracy in East Asia: A Critique of Samuel P. Huntington’s Third W ave†, published in Korea Journal in the Autumn of 1999.In states that Huntington is guilty of arguing that â€Å"East Asian countries which have Confucian tradition can attain the ‘salvation of democracy’ only by self-denial – the denial of their own tradition – and ‘assimilation’ of modern Western culture. †19 , quoting him saying â€Å"Confucian democracy may be a contradiction in terms, but democracy in a Confucian society†20. Ultimately, people â€Å"need new sources of identity, new forms of stable community, and new sets of moral precepts to provide them with a sense of meaning and purpose†21, Huntington argues.Huntington also notes that Muslim societies, contrary to their Asian counterparts, have expressed their culture through the resurgence of religion, noting that Islam â€Å"embodies the acceptance of modernity, rejection of Western culture, and the recommitment to Islam as the guide to life in the modern world†22. This is largely because of the emergence of a large, devout and young generation of Muslims has been paired with an authoritarian style of government. In â€Å"Part 3: the Emerging Order of Civilizations†, Huntington notes that during the Cold War, countries were either labelled as â€Å"communist† or â€Å"non-communist†.Now, countries who cannot easily identify themselves have entered into an identity crisis 23. Because of this, many new international organizations (Ex: the European Union, the North American Free Trade Agreement, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, etc). came together; uniting nationstates under common â€Å"ancestry, religion, language, values, and institutions†, and in doing so, distanced themselves from different nations who did not share these characteristics 24. However, not all nations have been successful in identifying with one particular culture, Huntington states, referring to Mexico, Turkey, Russia, a nd Australia 25.These states, he says, could be described as â€Å"torn countries†26; countries which are torn between multiple cultural identities – the tradition cultural identity they’ve held, and the new cultural identity they wish to adopt. â€Å"A torn country†¦ has a single predominant culture which places it in one civilization, but its leaders want to shift it to another civilization. They say, in effect, ‘We are different peoples and belong in different places’†27. In â€Å"Chapter 7: Core States, Concentric States, and Civilized Order†, Huntington states that a small, powerful number of core states will be the centre of a new structure of civilizations.France and Germany are examples of these states in the European Union. He goes on to describe â€Å"core states†, the divide between Western Europe (Protestantism & Catholicism) and Eastern Europe (Orthodox Christianity & Islam), and the lack of a core state in Isl am. In â€Å"Part 4: Clashes of Civilizations† (arguably the most important section of the book), Samuel Huntington predicts that â€Å"In the emerging world, the relations between states and groups from different civilizations will not be close, and will often be antagonistic. 28 He hypothesizes that the three principal roots of conflict will be arise from the interaction of the following: 1. The arrogance of the West; 2. Islamic intolerance; and 3. Sinic assertiveness 29. As the chapter progresses, Huntington states that Islam and Christianity have almost always been at odds with each other, and that the Islamic and Western civilizations will inevitably clash in the 21st century. There are a number of reasons for this, from the Muslim population growth placing large numbers of unemployed and dissatis? ed youth in the hands of Islamic extremists; to the West? attempt to â€Å"universalize† its values, culture, and military (thus generating intense resentment from Mus lim communities), to an exaggerated view of differences between the two civilizations as a result of increased communication and interaction between them30 . ! Huntington notes that with the emergence of Asia and China? s growing economies has come an antagonistic relationship with the United States31. He predicts that the combination of China? s growing military with Asia? s growing economy could indeed result in an international con? ict. He also notes that the con? cts of the 21st century will be fought along â€Å"fault lines† (such as Islam vs. Christianity). He goes on to provide a list of fault line characteristics: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ â€Å"Communal conflicts between states or groups from different civilizations Almost always between people of different religions Prolonged duration Violent in nature Identity wars (us vs. them), eventually breaks down to religious identity Encouraged and financed by Diaspora communities Violence rarely ends permane ntly Propensity for peace is increased with third party intervention†32 In the final Chapter of the book, â€Å"Part 5: the Future of Civilizations†, Huntington oncludes that the West needs to be prepared to accept the growing influence of rival civilizations, if it wants to remain a global political power. As previously cited, Anthropologist Fethi Keeles was very critical of Huntington’s approach, in her piece published in the Journal of Third World Studies. Quoting Edward Said, a prominent critic of Samuel Huntington, she noted: â€Å"What culture today – whether Japanese, Arab, European, Korean, Chinese, or Indian – has not had long, intimate, and extraordinarily rich contacts with other cultures? 33 She then accuses him of being â€Å"indifferent to the complex nature of the multicultural world†, and argues that in his analysis he failed to address intra-cultural or civilizational variation34. ! However, Somali-born human rights activist and former Dutch MP Ayaan Hirsi Ali begs to differ. She argues that the greatest advantage of Huntington’s civilizational model of international relations is that â€Å"it reflects the world as it is – not as one wishes it would be† 35. â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations†, she states, â€Å"is a classic that should be taught in every international relations and history class — until a new world emerges. 36 No matter what the reader’s background is, it is difficult to argue that the nations of the world are not facing any forms of international conflict in the early 21st century. Where many critics choose to differ is on the grounds of the origins of said international conflict, asking: are the growing international conflicts truly due to opposing civilizations, or are the issues simply ideological? Samuel Huntington says these conflicts are predominantly rooted in culture and religion, and that the 21st century will inevitably be a period ch aracterized by â€Å"the Clash of Civilizations†.Bibliography: Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. Print. Charron, Nicholas. â€Å"Deja Vu All Over Again: A Post-Cold War Empirical Analysis of Samuel Huntington's ‘Clash of Civilizations' Theory. † Cooperation & Conflict 45. 1 (2010): 107-27. EBSCO Host. Web. Ali, Ayaan Hirsi. â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. † Foreign Affairs 89. 6 (2010): 198-99. EBSCO Host. Web. Perry, Glenn E. â€Å"Huntington and His Critics: the West and Islam. † Arab Studies Quarterly 24. 1 (2001): 18. EBSCO Host.Web. In, Kang Jung. â€Å"Confucianism and Democracy in East Asia: A Critique of Samuel P. Huntington’s Third Wave. † Korea Journal 39. 3 (1999): 315-37. Print. Hendrickson, Holly. â€Å"Book Summary of The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order by Samuel P. Huntington. † Beyond Intractability – More Constructive Approaches to Destructive Conflict. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado. Web. Keeles, Fethi. â€Å"The Antinomies of Samuel P. Huntington: Some Anthropological Reflections on the American Pundit. † Journal of Third World Studies. 14. 2 (2007): 131-43. Print.Sullivan, Anthony T. â€Å"Has Samuel Huntington’s Prediction Come to Pass? † Journal of the Historical Society 2. 2 (2002): 169-78. Print. Endnotes: Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996. Print. 1 2 3 4 Huntington 28. Huntington 45-46. Huntington had previously labelled this civilization as â€Å"Confucian†, in his 1993 Foreign Affairs article. He decided to use â€Å"Sinic†, as he felt Confucian teachings were not at the core of the civilization he was describing. (Huntington 1996:45) 5 6 7 8 9 Huntington 45. Huntington 47.Huntington 47. Huntington 47 . Keeles, Fethi. â€Å"The Antinomies of Samuel P. Huntington: Some Anthropological Reflections on the American Pundit. † Journal of Third World Studies. 14. 2 (2007): 131-43. Print. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Fethi 131. Fethi 142. Fethi 142. Fethi 142. Huntington 82-83. Huntington 82. Huntington 83-90. Huntington 90-91 Huntington 91. In, Kang Jung. â€Å"Confucianism and Democracy in East Asia: A Critique of Samuel P. Huntington’s Third Wave. † Korea Journal 39. 3 (1999): 319. Print. 20 21 22 23 Huntington 308; 308-310. Huntington 97. Huntington 110. Hendrickson, Holly. Book Summary of The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order by Samuel P. Huntington. † Beyond Intractability – More Constructive Approaches to Destructive Conflict. Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado. Web. 24 Huntington 126. 10 POLI 100 – F10N01! Gabrielle Bishop 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 Huntington 139. Huntington 138. Huntington 13 8. Huntington 183. Huntington 183. Huntington 211. Huntington 218. Hendrickson web. Keeles 143. Keeles 143. Ali, Ayaan Hirsi. â€Å"The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. † Foreign Affairs 89. 6 (2010): 198-99. EBSCO Host. Web. 36 Ali 99. 11